Dab solver - Greco-Buddhist art

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Later, the Chinese historical chronicle [[Hou Hanshu]] describes the enquiry about Buddhism made around 67 CE by the emperor [[...|Emperor Ming]] (58-75 CE). He sent an envoy to the [[Yuezhi]] in northwestern India, who brought back paintings and statues of the Buddha, confirming their existence before that date:

:"The Emperor, to discover the true doctrine, sent an envoy to  (Northwestern India) to inquire about the Buddha’s doctrine, after which paintings and statues [of the Buddha] appeared in the Middle Kingdom." (Hou Hanshu, trans. John Hill)

An Indo-Chinese tradition also explains that [[Nagasena]], also known as [[Menander I|Menander]]'s Buddhist teacher, created in 43 BCE in the city of [[Pataliputra]] a statue of the Buddha, the [[Emerald Buddha]], which was later brought to [[Thailand]].

{{See also|Buddhism in China}}
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Another characteristic of Demetrius is associated to the Buddha: they share the same protector deity. In Gandharan art, the Buddha is often shown under the protection of the Greek god [[Herakles]], standing with his club (and later a diamond rod) resting over his arm.^ref This unusual representation of Herakles is the same as the one on the back of Demetrius' coins, and it is exclusively associated to him (and his son [[Euthydemus II]]), seen only on the back of his coins.

Soon, the figure of the Buddha was incorporated within architectural designs, such as Corinthian pillars and friezes. Scenes of the life of the Buddha are typically depicted in a Greek architectural environment, with protagonist wearing Greek clothes.
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=== Gods and Bodhisattvas ===

[[File:KushanMaitreya.JPG|thumb|left|120px|The [[Bodhisattva]] [[Maitreya]], 2nd century, [[Gandhara]].]]
[[File:PanchalaAndHariti.JPG|thumb|240px|The Buddhist gods [[Pancika]] (left) and [[Hariti]] (right), 3rd century, Takht-i Bahi, [[Gandhara]], [[British Museum]].]]
Deities from the  mythological pantheon also tend to be incorporated in Buddhist representations, displaying a strong syncretism. In particular, [[Herakles]] (of the type of the Demetrius coins, with club resting on the arm) has been used abundantly as the representation of [[Vajrapani]], the protector of the Buddha.^ref Other Greek deities abundantly used in Greco-Buddhist art are representation of [[Atlas (mythology)|]], and the Greek wind god [[Anemoi#Boreas|Boreas]]. Atlas in particular tends to be involved as a sustaining elements in Buddhist architectural elements. Boreas became the Japanese wind god [[Fūjin|Fujin]] through the Greco-Buddhist [[Wardo]]. The mother deity [[Hariti]], originally a cannibalistic [[Bcatria]]n [[daeva]] was transformed by Buddhists into a protagonist figure.

Particularly under the Kushans, there are also numerous representations of richly adorned, princely [[Bodhisattva]]s all in a very realistic Greco-Buddhist style. The [[Bodhisattvas]], characteristic of the [[Mahayana]] form of Buddhism, are represented under the traits of Kushan princes, completed with their canonical accessories.
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<gallery>
Image:WindGod2.JPG|Fragment of the wind god [[Anemoi#Boreas|Boreas]], [[Hadda, Afghanistan|]], [[Afghanistan]].
Image:Atalante.JPG|Gandharan {{dn|{{subst:DATE}}|date=January 2013}}.
Image:WingedDeity.jpg|Winged Atalante.
Image:BuddhaWithHeraclesAndTychee.jpg|The Buddha, flanked by [[Herakles]]/ [[Vajrapani]] and [[Tyche]]/ [[Hariti]].
Image:PoseidonGandhara.JPG|Gandhara [[Poseidon]] ([[Ancient Orient Museum]])
Image:GandharaTriton.JPG|[[Triton (mythology)|]]
File:Hadda laughing boy 008.jpg|"Laughing boy" from Hadda
</gallery>
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== Southern influences ==

=== Art of the Sunga ===
[[File:SungaAtalante.JPG|thumb|200px|left|Balustrade-holding [[Yaksha|Yaksa]] with [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] columns, [[Madhya Pradesh]] (?), [[Sunga empire|Sunga period]] (2nd-1st century BCE). [[Musee Guimet]].]]
[[File:GreekKing(Drawing).jpg|thumb|150px|Indian relief of probable [[Indo-Greek]] king, with Buddhist [[triratana]] symbol on his sword. Bharhut, 2nd century BCE. [[Indian Museum]], [[Calcutta]] (drawing).]]
Examples of the influence of Hellenistic or Greco-Buddhist art on the art of the [[Sunga empire]] (183-73 BCE) are usually faint. The main religion, at least at the beginning, seems to have been [[Brahmanic Hinduism]], although some late Buddhist realizations in [[Madhya Pradesh]] as also known, such as some architectural expansions that were done at the [[stupa]]s of [[Sanchi]] and [[Bharhut]], originally started under King [[Ashoka]].

This Sunga-period balustrate-holding  [[Yaksha|Yaksa]] from the Sunga period (left), adopts the  theme, usually fulfilled by [[Atlas (mythology)|]], and elements of [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] capital and architecture typical of Greco-Buddhist friezes from the Northwest, although the content does not seem to be related to Buddhism. This work suggests that some of the Gandharan friezes, influential to this work, may have existed as early as the 2nd century or 1st century BCE. 

Other Sunga works show the influence of floral scroll patterns, and Hellenistic elements in the rendering of the fold of dresses. The 2nd century BCE depiction of an armed foreigner (right), probably a Greek king, with Buddhist symbolism ([[triratana]] symbol of the sword), also indicates some kind of cultural, religious, and artistic exchange at that point of time. 
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[[File:BuddhaHead.JPG|thumb|220px|[[Gandhara]] Buddha, 1st-2nd century CE]]
{{History of Greek art}}

'''Greco-Buddhist art''' is the artistic manifestation of [[Greco-Buddhism]], a cultural [[syncretism]] between the [[Ancient Greece|Classical Greek]] culture and [[Buddhism]], which developed over a period of close to 1000 years in [[Central Asia]], between the conquests of [[Alexander the Great]] in the 4th century BCE, and the [[Muslim_conquest_in_the_Indian_subcontinent|Islamic conquests]] of the 7th century CE. Greco-Buddhist art is characterized by the strong idealistic realism and sensuous description of Hellenistic art and the first representations of the Buddha in human form, which have helped define the artistic (and particularly, sculptural) canon for Buddhist art throughout the Asian continent up to the present. It is also a strong example of cultural [[syncretism]] between eastern and western traditions.

The origins of Greco-Buddhist art are to be found in the Hellenistic [[Greco-Bactrian kingdom]] (250 BCE- 130 BCE), located in today’s [[Afghanistan]], from which Hellenistic culture radiated into the [[Indian subcontinent]] with the establishment of the [[Indo-Greek kingdom]] (180 BCE-10 BCE). Under the [[Indo-Greeks]] and then the [[Kushan]]s, the interaction of Greek and Buddhist culture flourished in the area of [[Gandhara]], in today’s northern [[Pakistan]], before spreading further into [[India]], influencing the art of [[Mathura, Uttar Pradesh|Mathura]], and then the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] art of the [[Gupta empire]], which was to extend to the rest of South-East Asia. The influence of Greco-Buddhist art also spread northward towards [[Central Asia]], strongly affecting the art of the [[Tarim Basin]], and ultimately the arts of [[China]], [[Korea]], and [[Japan]].

== Hellenistic art in southern Asia ==
[[File:DemetriusCoin.jpg|thumb|300px|Silver coin depicting the [[Greco-Bactrian]] king [[Demetrius I of Bactria|Demetrius I]] (200-180 BCE) wearing an elephant scalp, symbol of his conquest of India.  '''Back:''' [[Herakles]], holding a lion skin and a club resting over the arm. The text reads: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΔΗΜΗΤΡΙΟΥ - ''BASILEŌS DĒMĒTRIOU'' "of King Demetrius".]]
Powerful Hellenistic states were established in the areas of [[Bactria]] and [[Sogdiana]] for three centuries following the conquests of [[Alexander the Great]] around 330 BCE: the [[Seleucid]] empire until 250 BCE, followed by the [[Greco-Bactrian kingdom]] until 130 BCE, and the [[Indo-Greek kingdom]] from 180 BCE to around 10 BCE.

The clearest examples of Hellenistic art are found in the coins of the [[Greco-Bactrian]] kings of the period, such as [[Demetrius I of Bactria]]. Many coins of the Greco-Bactrian kings have been unearthed, including the largest silver and gold coins ever minted in the Hellenistic world, ranking among the best in artistic and technical sophistication: they "show a degree of individuality never matched by the often more bland descriptions of their royal contemporaries further West". ("Greece and the Hellenistic world").

These Hellenistic kingdoms established cities on the Greek model, such as in [[Ai-Khanoum]] in [[Bactria]], displaying purely Hellenistic architectural features, Hellenistic statuary, and remains of [[Aristotle|Aristotelician]] papyrus prints and coin hoards.

These Greek elements penetrated  in northwestern India following the invasion of the [[Greco-Bactrians]] in 180 BCE, when they established the [[Indo-Greek kingdom]] in western [[Pakistan]].  Fortified cities, such as [[Sirkap]] in western Pakistan, were established. Architectural styles used Hellenistic decorative motifs such as fruit garland and scrolls. Stone palettes for aromatic oils representing purely Hellenistic themes such as a [[Nereid]] riding a [[Ketos]] sea monster are found.

In [[Hadda, Afghanistan|Hadda]], Hellenistic deities, such as [[Atlas (mythology)|Atlas]] are found. Wind gods are depicted, which will affect the representation of wind deities as far as Japan. Dionysiac scenes represent people in Classical style drinking wine from amphoras and playing instruments.

==Interaction==
As soon as the Greeks invaded India to form the [[Indo-Greek kingdom]], a fusion of Hellenistic and Buddhist elements started to appear, encouraged by the benevolence of the Greek kings towards Buddhism. This artistic trend then developed for several centuries and seemed to flourish further during the [[Kushan Empire]] from the 1st century CE.

===Artistic model===
[[File:BuddhaAcanthusCapitol.JPG|thumb|right|250px|An [[Indo-Corinthian capital]] with the Buddha at its center, 3-4th century, [[Gandhara]].]]
Greco-Buddhist art depicts the life of the Buddha in a visual manner, probably by incorporating the real-life models and concepts which were available to the artists of the period.

The [[Bodhisattva]]s are depicted as bare-chested and jewelled Indian princes, and the [[Buddhahood|Buddhas]] as Greek kings wearing the light [[toga]]-like himation. The buildings in which they are depicted incorporate Greek style, with the ubiquitous [[Indo-Corinthian capital]]s and Greek decorative scrolls. Surrounding deities form a pantheon of Greek ([[Atlas (mythology)|Atlas]], [[Herakles]]) and Indian gods ([[Indra]]).

=== Material ===
Stucco as well as stone was widely used by sculptors in Gandhara for the decoration of monastic and cult buildings. Stucco provided the artist with a medium of great plasticity, enabling a high degree of expresivness to be given to the sculpture. Sculpting in stucco was popular wherever Buddhism spread from Gandhara - India, Afghanistan, Central Asia and China.

===Stylistic evolution===
Stylistically, Greco-Buddhist art started by being extremely fine and realistic, as apparent on the standing Buddhas, with "a realistic treatment of the folds and on some even a hint of modelled volume that characterizes the best Greek work" (Boardman). It then lost this sophisticated realism, becoming progressively more symbolic and decorative over the centuries.

===Architecture===
The presence of [[stupa]]s at the Greek city of [[Sirkap]], which was built by [[Demetrius I of Bactria|Demetrius]] around 180 BCE, already indicates a strong syncretism between Hellenism and the [[Buddhism|Buddhist faith]], together with other religions such as [[Hinduism]] and [[Zoroastrianism]]. The style is Greek, adorned with [[Corinthian column]]s in excellent Hellenistic execution.
[[File:GandharanAtlas.JPG|thumb|left|200px|The Titan [[Atlas (mythology)|Atlas]], supporting a Buddhist monument, [[Hadda, Afghanistan|Hadda]].]]
Later in [[Hadda, Afghanistan|Hadda]], the Greek divinity [[Atlas (mythology)|Atlas]] is represented holding Buddhist monuments with decorated Greek columns. The motif was adopted extensively throughout the Indian sub-continent, Atlas being substituted for the Indian [[Yaksha|Yaksa]] in the monuments of the [[Sunga]] around the 2nd century BCE.

===Buddha===
[[File:Gandhara Buddha (tnm).jpeg|thumb|One of the first representations of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], 1st-2nd century CE, [[Gandhara]]: [[Standing Buddha (Tokyo National Museum)]].]]
Sometime between the 2nd century BCE and the 1st century CE, the first anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha were developed. These were absent from earlier strata of Buddhist art, which preferred to represent the Buddha with symbols such as the stupa, the Bodhi tree, the empty seat, the wheel, or the footprints. But the innovative anthropomorphic Buddha image immediately reached a very high level of sculptural sophistication, naturally inspired by the sculptural styles of Hellenistic Greece.

Many of the stylistic elements in the representations of the Buddha point to Greek influence: the Greek [[himation]] (a light [[toga]]-like wavy robe covering both shoulders: Buddhist characters are always represented with a [[dhoti]] [[loincloth]] before this innovation), the [[halo (religious iconography)|halo]], the [[contrapposto]] stance of the upright figures (see: 1st&ndash;2nd century Gandhara standing Buddhas <ref>Standing Buddha:[http://faculty.maxwell.syr.edu/gaddis/HST210/Oct21/Gandhara%20Buddha.jpg Image]</ref> and <ref>Standing Buddha:[http://www.kimbellart.org/database/images/jpg/AP1967_01.jpg Image]</ref>), the stylized [[Mediterranean]] curly hair and top-knot apparently derived from the style of the [[Apollo Belvedere|Belvedere Apollo]] (330 BCE),<ref>Belvedere Apollo: [http://www.artlex.com/ArtLex/h/images/hellenis_apolbelve.det.lg.JPG Image]</ref> and the measured quality of the faces, all rendered with strong artistic [[Realism (visual arts)|realism]] (See: [[Greek art]]). Some of the standing Buddhas (as the one pictured) were sculpted using the specific Greek technique of making the hands and sometimes the feet in marble to increase the realistic effect, and the rest of the body in another material.

Foucher especially considered Hellenistic free-standing Buddhas as "the most beautiful, and probably the most ancient of the Buddhas", assigning them to the 1st century BCE, and making them the starting point of the anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha ("The Buddhist art of Gandhara", Marshall, p101).

====Development====
[[File:BimaranCasket2.JPG|thumb|180px|The [[Bimaran casket]], representing the Buddha, is dated to around 30-10 BCE. [[British Museum]].]]
There is some debate regarding the exact date for the development of the anthropomorphic representation of the Buddha, and this has a bearing on whether the innovation came directly from the [[Indo-Greeks]], or was a later development by the [[Indo-Scythians]], the [[Indo-Parthians]] or the [[Kushan]]s under Hellenistic artistic influence. Most of the early images of the Buddha (especially those of the standing Buddha) are anepigraphic, which makes it difficult to have a definite dating. The earliest known image of the Buddha with approximate indications on date is the [[Bimaran casket]], which has been found buried with coins of the Indo-Scythian king [[Azes II]] (or possibly [[Azes I]]), indicating a 30-10 BCE date, although this date is not undisputed.

[[File:PilarImage4.jpg|200px|thumb|left|An [[Indo-Corinthian capital]] from the [[Butkara Stupa]] under which a coin of [[Azes II]] was found. Dated to 20 BCE or earlier ([[Turin City Museum of Ancient Art]]).]]
Such datation, as well as the general Hellenistic style and attitude of the Buddha on the Bimaran casket ([[himation]] dress, [[contrapposto]] attitude, general depiction) would made it a possible Indo-Greek work, used in dedications by Indo-Scythians soon after the end of Indo-Greek rule in the area of [[Gandhara]]. Since it already displays quite a sophisticated iconography ([[Brahma (Buddhism)|Brahma]] and [[Śakra (Buddhism)|Śakra]] as attendants, [[Bodhisattva]]s) in an advanced style, it would suggest much earlier representations of the Buddha were already current by that time, going back to the rule of the [[Indo-Greeks]] ([[Alfred A. Foucher]] and others).

The next Greco-Buddhist findings to be strictly datable are rather late, such as the c.120 CE [[Kanishka casket]] and [[Kanishka]]'s Buddhist coins. These works at least indicate though that the anthropomorphic representation of the Buddha was already extant in the 1st century CE.

[[File:HanWudiBuddhas.jpg|thumb|170px|Fresco describing Emperor [[Han Wudi]] (156-87 BCE) worshipping two statues of the Buddha, [[Mogao Caves]], [[Dunhuang]], c.8th century CE]]
From another direction, Chinese historical sources and mural paintings in the [[Tarim Basin]] city of [[Dunhuang]] accurately describe the travels of the explorer and ambassador [[Zhang Qian]] to [[Central Asia]] as far as [[Bactria]] around 130 BCE, and the same murals describe the Emperor [[Han Wudi]] (156-87 BCE) worshipping Buddhist statues, explaining them as ''"golden men brought in 120 BCE by a great Han general in his campaigns against the nomads."'' Although there is no other mention of Han Wudi worshipping the Buddha in Chinese historical literature, the murals would suggest that statues of the Buddha were already in existence during the 2nd century BCE, connecting them directly to the time of the Indo-Greeks.

Later, the Chinese historical chronicle [[Hou Hanshu]] describes the enquiry about Buddhism made around 67 CE by the emperor [[Emperor Ming of Han China|Emperor Ming]] (58-75 CE). He sent an envoy to the [[Yuezhi]] in northwestern India, who brought back paintings and statues of the Buddha, confirming their existence before that date:

:''"The Emperor, to discover the true doctrine, sent an envoy to <<link:0>> (Northwestern India) to inquire about the Buddha’s doctrine, after which paintings and statues [of the Buddha] appeared in the Middle Kingdom."'' (Hou Hanshu, trans. John Hill)

An Indo-Chinese tradition also explains that [[Nagasena]], also known as [[Menander I|Menander]]'s Buddhist teacher, created in 43 BCE in the city of [[Pataliputra]] a statue of the Buddha, the [[Emerald Buddha]], which was later brought to [[Thailand]].

====Artistic model====
The [[Greco-Bactrian]] king [[Demetrius I of Bactria|Demetrius I]] (205-171 BCE) himself may have been the prototype for the image of the Buddha. He was king and saviour of India, as confirmed by his successors [[King Apollodotus I]] and [[Menander I]], who were officially described as ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΣΩTHPOΣ (''basileōs sotēros'') "saviour king" in the bilingual [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Kharoshthi]] legends of their coins. Demetrius was named ''Dharmamita'' ("Friend of the [[Dharma]]") in the Indian text of the [[Yuga Purana]]. Buddhism flourished under his reign and that of his successors, precisely as it was being oppressed by the Indian dynasty of the [[Sunga]] in the East.

[[File:Buddha-Vajrapani-Herakles.JPG|thumb|230px|[[Heracles]] depiction of [[Vajrapani]] as the protector of the Buddha, 2nd century [[Gandhara]], [[British Museum]].]]
The earliest Hellenistic statues of the Buddha portray him in a style reminiscent of a king, where the traditional Buddhist symbols (the [[Dharmacakra|Dharma wheel]], the empty throne, the [[Bodhi tree]], the lions) are absent. Demetrius may have been deified, and the first Hellenistic statues of the Buddha we know may be representations of the idealized Greek king, princely, yet friendly, protective and open to Indian culture. As they progressively incorporated more Buddhist elements, they became central to the Buddhist movement, and influenced the representations of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] in Greco-Buddhist art and later.

Another characteristic of Demetrius is associated to the Buddha: they share the same protector deity. In Gandharan art, the Buddha is often shown under the protection of the Greek god [[Herakles]], standing with his club (and later a diamond rod) resting over his arm.<ref>Vajrapani-Herakles:[http://www.exoticindiaart.com/artimages/BuddhaImage/greece_sm.jpg Image]</ref> This unusual representation of Herakles is the same as the one on the back of Demetrius' coins, and it is exclusively associated to him (and his son [[Euthydemus II]]), seen only on the back of his coins.

Soon, the figure of the Buddha was incorporated within architectural designs, such as Corinthian pillars and friezes. Scenes of the life of the Buddha are typically depicted in a Greek architectural environment, with protagonist wearing Greek clothes.

===Gods and Bodhisattvas===
[[File:KushanMaitreya.JPG|thumb|left|120px|The [[Bodhisattva]] [[Maitreya]], 2nd century, [[Gandhara]].]]
[[File:PanchalaAndHariti.JPG|thumb|240px|The Buddhist gods [[Pancika]] (left) and [[Hariti]] (right), 3rd century, Takht-i Bahi, [[Gandhara]], [[British Museum]].]]
Deities from the <<link:1>> mythological pantheon also tend to be incorporated in Buddhist representations, displaying a strong syncretism. In particular, [[Herakles]] (of the type of the Demetrius coins, with club resting on the arm) has been used abundantly as the representation of [[Vajrapani]], the protector of the Buddha.<ref>"''The origin of the image of Vajrapani should be explained. This deity is the protector and guide of the Buddha Sakyamuni. His image was modelled after that of Hercules. (...) The Gandharan Vajrapani was transformed in Central Asia and China and afterwards transmitted to Japan, where it exerted stylistic influences on the wrestler-like statues of the Guardian Deities (Nio).''" (Katsumi Tanabe, "Alexander the Great, East-West cultural contacts from Greece to Japan", p23)</ref> Other Greek deities abundantly used in Greco-Buddhist art are representation of [[Atlas (mythology)|Atlas]], and the Greek wind god [[Anemoi#Boreas|Boreas]]. Atlas in particular tends to be involved as a sustaining elements in Buddhist architectural elements. Boreas became the Japanese wind god [[Fūjin|Fujin]] through the Greco-Buddhist [[Wardo]]. The mother deity [[Hariti]], originally a cannibalistic [[Bcatria]]n [[daeva]] was transformed by Buddhists into a protagonist figure.

Particularly under the Kushans, there are also numerous representations of richly adorned, princely [[Bodhisattva]]s all in a very realistic Greco-Buddhist style. The [[Bodhisattvas]], characteristic of the [[Mahayana]] form of Buddhism, are represented under the traits of Kushan princes, completed with their canonical accessories.
 
<gallery>
Image:WindGod2.JPG|Fragment of the wind god [[Anemoi#Boreas|Boreas]], [[Hadda, Afghanistan|Hadda]], [[Afghanistan]].
Image:Atalante.JPG|Gandharan <<link:2>>{{dn|{{subst:DATE}}|date=January 2013}}.
Image:WingedDeity.jpg|Winged Atalante.
Image:BuddhaWithHeraclesAndTychee.jpg|The Buddha, flanked by [[Herakles]]/ [[Vajrapani]] and [[Tyche]]/ [[Hariti]].
Image:PoseidonGandhara.JPG|Gandhara [[Poseidon]] ([[Ancient Orient Museum]])
Image:GandharaTriton.JPG|[[Triton (mythology)|Triton]]
File:Hadda laughing boy 008.jpg|"Laughing boy" from Hadda
</gallery>

===Cupids===
[[File:CupidsAndBuddha.JPG|thumb|350px|Winged [[Cupid]]s holding a wreath over the Buddha (left:detail), [[Hadda, Afghanistan|Hadda]], 3rd century. [[Musée Guimet]].]]
Winged cupids are another popular motif in [[Gandhara]]n art. They usually fly in pair, holding a [[wreath]], the symbol of victory and kingship.

These figures, also known as "Amesha Spentas" were extensively adopted in Buddhist art, especially throughout [[Gandhara]], [[Arachosia]] and [[Gedrosia]], in forms derivative to the Greco-Buddhist representation. The progressive evolution of the style can be seen in the art of [[Qizil]] and [[Dunhuang]]. It is unclear however if the concept of the flying cupids was brought to India from the West, of if it had an independent Indian origin, although Boardman considers it a Classical contribution: "Another Classical motif we found in India is the pair of hovering winged figures, generally called apsaras." (Boardman)

[[File:CupidsAndGarlands.JPG|thumb|300px|left|Cupids and garlands. Gandhara. 1st-2nd century. [[Musée Guimet]].]]
Scenes of cupids holding rich [[Garland (decoration)|garland]]s, sometimes adorned with fruits, is another very popular Gandharan motif, directly inspired from Greek art. It is sometimes argued that the only concession to Indian art appears in the anklets worn by the cupids. These scenes had a very broad influence, as far as [[Taxila]] in [[Pakistan]]i [[Panjab]].

===Devotees===
[[File:GandharaDonorFrieze2.JPG|thumb|400px|Gandhara frieze with devotees, holding [[Plantain (cooking)|plantain]] leaves, in purely Hellenistic style, inside [[Corinthian column]]s, 1st-2nd century CE. [[Buner]], [[Swat (Pakistan)|Swat]], [[Pakistan]]. [[Victoria and Albert Museum]].]]
Some Greco-Buddhist friezes represent groups of donors or devotees, giving interesting insights into the cultural identity of those who participated in the Buddhist cult.

Some groups, often described as the "[[Buner reliefs]]," usually dated to the 1st century CE, depict Greeks in perfect Hellenistic style, either in posture, rendering, or clothing (wearing the Greek [[chiton (costume)|chiton]] and [[himation]]). It is sometimes even difficult to perceive an actual religious message behind the scenes. (The devotee scene on the right might, with doubt, depict of the presentation of Prince [[Gautama Buddha|Siddharta]] to his bride. It may also just be a festive scene.)

About a century later, friezes also depict Kushan devotees, usually with the Buddha as the central figure.

===Fantastic animals===
[[File:Ichthyo-Centaur.jpg|thumb|200px|An Ichthyo-Centaur, 2nd century Gandhara, [[Victoria and Albert Museum]].]]
Various fantastic animal deities of Hellenic origin were used as decorative elements in Buddhist temples, often triangular friezes in staircases or in front of Buddhist altars. The origin of these motifs can be found in Greece in the 5th century BCE, and later in the designs of Greco-Bactrian perfume trays as those discovered in [[Sirkap]]. Among the most popular fantastic animals are [[triton (mythology)|triton]]s, ichthyo-[[centaurs]] and [[ketos]] [[sea-monster]]s. It should be noted that similar fantastic animals are found in ancient Egyptian reliefs, and might therefore have been passed on to Bactria and India independently of Greek imperialism.

As fantastic animals of the sea, they were, in early Buddhism, supposed to safely bring the souls of dead people to Paradise beyond the waters. These motifs were later adopted in Indian art, where they influenced the depiction of the Indian monster [[Makara (Hindu mythology)|makara]], [[Varuna]]'s mount.

==Kushan contribution==
[[File:BuddhistTriad.JPG|thumb|left|300px|An early [[Mahayana]] Buddhist triad. From left to right, a [[Kushan]] devotee, the [[Bodhisattva]] [[Maitreya]], the Buddha, the Bodhisattva [[Avalokitesvara]], and a Buddhist monk. 2nd-3rd century CE, [[Gandhara]].]] 
The later part of Greco-Buddhist art in northwestern India is usually associated with the [[Kushan Empire]]. The Kushans were nomadic people who started migrating from the [[Tarim Basin]] in [[Central Asia]] from around 170 BCE and ended up founding an empire in northwestern India from the 2nd century BCE, after having been rather Hellenized through their contacts with the Greco-Bactrians, and later the Indo-Greeks (they adopted the Greek script for writing).

The Kushans, at the center of the [[Silk Road]] enthusiastically gathered works of art from all the quarters of the ancient world, as suggested by the hoards found in their northern capital in [[Begram|the archeological site of Begram]], [[Afghanistan]].

The Kushans sponsored Buddhism together with other Iranian and Hindu faiths, and probably contributed to the flourishing of Greco-Buddhist art. Their coins, however, suggest a lack of artistic sophistication: the representations of their kings, such as [[Kanishka]], tend to be crude (lack of proportion, rough drawing), and the image of the Buddha is an assemblage of a Hellenistic Buddha statue with feet grossly represented and spread apart in the same fashion as the Kushan king. This tends to indicate the anteriority of the Hellenistic Greco-Buddhist statues, used as models, and a subsequent corruption by Kushan artists.

<gallery>
Image:MaitreyaSeated.JPG|Maitreya, with Kushan devotee couple. 2nd century [[Gandhara]].
Image:Kushans&Maitreya.JPG|Maitreya, with Kushan devotees, left and right. 2nd century Gandhara.
Image:KushansAndMaitreya2.JPG|Maitreya, with Indian (left) and Kushan (right) devotees.
Image:Kushans&WorshippingOfTheBowl.JPG|Kushans worshipping the Buddha's bowl. 2nd century Gandhara.
Image:Kushan,_Brahma,_Indra,_Indian.JPG|Kushan devotee couple, around the Buddha, [[Brahma]] and [[Indra]].
Image:KanishkaCasket.JPG|The "[[Kanishka casket]]," with the Buddha surrounded by [[Brahma]] and [[Indra]], and [[Kanishka]] on the lower part, 127 CE.
Image:BuddhaTriadAndKushanCouple.JPG|Buddha triad and kneeling Kushan devotee couple. 3rd century.
</gallery>

==Southern influences==
===Art of the Sunga===
[[File:SungaAtalante.JPG|thumb|200px|left|Balustrade-holding [[Yaksha|Yaksa]] with [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] columns, [[Madhya Pradesh]] (?), [[Sunga empire|Sunga period]] (2nd-1st century BCE). [[Musee Guimet]].]]
[[File:GreekKing(Drawing).jpg|thumb|150px|Indian relief of probable [[Indo-Greek]] king, with Buddhist [[triratana]] symbol on his sword. Bharhut, 2nd century BCE. [[Indian Museum]], [[Calcutta]] (drawing).]]
Examples of the influence of Hellenistic or Greco-Buddhist art on the art of the [[Sunga empire]] (183-73 BCE) are usually faint. The main religion, at least at the beginning, seems to have been [[Brahmanic Hinduism]], although some late Buddhist realizations in [[Madhya Pradesh]] as also known, such as some architectural expansions that were done at the [[stupa]]s of [[Sanchi]] and [[Bharhut]], originally started under King [[Ashoka]].

This Sunga-period balustrate-holding <<link:3>> [[Yaksha|Yaksa]] from the Sunga period (left), adopts the <<link:4>> theme, usually fulfilled by [[Atlas (mythology)|Atlas]], and elements of [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] capital and architecture typical of Greco-Buddhist friezes from the Northwest, although the content does not seem to be related to Buddhism. This work suggests that some of the Gandharan friezes, influential to this work, may have existed as early as the 2nd century or 1st century BCE.

Other Sunga works show the influence of floral scroll patterns, and Hellenistic elements in the rendering of the fold of dresses. The 2nd century BCE depiction of an armed foreigner (right), probably a Greek king, with Buddhist symbolism ([[triratana]] symbol of the sword), also indicates some kind of cultural, religious, and artistic exchange at that point of time.

===Art of Mathura===
[[File:MathuraBodhisattvaSide.jpg|thumb|200px|The [[Bodhisattva]] [[Maitreya]], 2nd century, [[Mathura, Uttar Pradesh|Mathura]].]]
[[File:MathuraBuddha.JPG|thumb|150px|left|A Bodhisattva, 2nd century, Mathura]].
The representations of the Buddha in [[Mathura, Uttar Pradesh|Mathura]], in central northern India, are generally dated slightly later than those of Gandhara, although not without debate, and are also much less numerous. Up to that point, Indian Buddhist art had essentially been aniconic, avoiding representation of the Buddha, except for his symbols, such as the wheel or the [[Bodhi tree]], although some archaic Mathuran  sculptural representation of [[Yaksha|Yaksas]] (earth divinities) have been dated to the 1st century BCE. Even these Yaksas indicate some Hellenistic influence, possibly dating back to the occupation of Mathura by the Indo-Greeks during the 2nd century BCE.

In terms of artistic predispositions for the first representations of the Buddha, Greek art provided a very natural and centuries-old background for an anthropomorphic representation of a divinity, whether on the contrary "there was nothing in earlier Indian statuary to suggest such a treatment of form or dress, and the Hindu pantheon provided no adequate model for an aristocratic and wholly human deity" (Boardman).

[[File:AmaravatiScroll.JPG|thumb|300px|Greek scroll supported by Indian Yaksas, [[Amaravati (India)|Amaravati]], 3rd century CE]]
The Mathura sculptures incorporate many Hellenistic elements, such as the general idealistic realism, and key design elements such as the curly hair, and folded garment. Specific Mathuran adaptations tend to reflect warmer climatic conditions, as they consist in a higher fluidity of the clothing, which progressively tend to cover only one shoulder instead of both. Also, facial types also tend to become more Indianized. Banerjee in "Hellenism in India" describes "the mixed character of the Mathura School in which we find on the one hand, a direct continuation of the old Indian art of [[Bharut]] and [[Sanchi]] and on the other hand, the classical influence derived from Gandhara".

The influence of Greek art can be felt beyond Mathura, as far as [[Amaravati (India)|Amaravati]] on the East coast of India, as shown by the usage of Greek scrolls in combination with Indian deities. Other motifs such as Greek chariots pulled by four horses can also be found in the same area.

Incidentally, [[Hindu art]] started to develop from the 1st to the 2nd century CE and found its first inspiration in the Buddhist art of Mathura. It progressively incorporated a profusion of original Hindu stylistic and symbolic elements however, in contrast with the general balance and simplicity of Buddhist art.

The art of Mathura features frequent sexual imagery. Female images with bare breasts, nude below the waist, displaying labia and female genitalia are common. These images are more sexually explicit than those of earlier or later periods.

===Art of the Gupta===
[[File:GuptaBuddha.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Buddha of the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] period, 5th century, Mathura.]]
[[File:MathuraBuddhaHead.JPG|thumb|200px|right|Head of a Buddha, Gupta period, 6th century.]]
The art of Mathura acquired progressively more Indian elements and reached a very high sophistication during the [[Gupta Empire]], between the 4th and the 6th century CE. The art of the Gupta is considered as the pinnacle of Indian Buddhist art.

Hellenistic elements are still clearly visible in the purity of the statuary and the folds of the clothing, but are improved upon with a very delicate rendering of the draping and a sort of radiance reinforced by the usage of pink sandstone.
Artistic details tend to be less realistic, as seen in the symbolic shell-like curls used to render the hairstyle of the Buddha.

==Expansion in Central Asia==
Greco-Buddhist artistic influences naturally followed Buddhism in its expansion to Central and Eastern Asia from the 1st century BCE.

===Bactria===
[[File:GBA1(trimmed).jpg|thumb|200px|Statue from a Buddhist monastery 700 AD, Afghanistan]]
[[Bactria]] was under direct Greek control for more than two centuries from the conquests of [[Alexander the Great]] in 332 BCE to the end of the [[Greco-Bactrian]] kingdom around 125 BCE. The art of Bactria was almost perfectly Hellenistic as shown by the archaeological remains of [[Greco-Bactrian]] cities such as [[Alexandria on the Oxus]] ([[Ai-Khanoum]]), or the numismatic art of the Greco-Bactrian kings, often considered as the best of the Hellenistic world, and including the largest silver and gold coins ever minted by the Greeks.

When Buddhism expanded in Central Asia from the 1st century CE, Bactria saw the results of the [[Greco-Buddhist]] syncretism arrive on its territory from India, and a new blend of sculptural representation remained until the Islamic invasions.

The most striking of these realizations are the [[Buddhas of Bamyan]]. They tend to vary between the 5th and the 9th century CE. Their style is strongly inspired by Hellenistic culture.

In another area of Bactria called [[Fondukistan]], some Greco-Buddhist art survived until the 7th century in Buddhist monasteries, displaying a strong Hellenistic influence combined with Indian decorativeness and mannerism, and some influence by the [[Sasanid]] Persians.

Most of the remaining art of Bactria was destroyed from the 5th century onward: the Buddhists were often blamed for [[idolatry]] and tended to be persecuted by the [[iconoclastic]] Muslims. Destructions continued during the [[War in Afghanistan (2001-present)|Afghanistan War]], and especially by the [[Taliban]] regime in 2001. The most famous case is that of the destruction of the [[Buddhas of Bamyan]]. Ironically, most of the remaining art from Afghanistan still extant was removed from the country during the Colonial period. In particular, a rich collection exists at the [[Musee Guimet]] in France.

The art of the [[Tarim Basin]], also called [[Serindian art]], is the art that developed from the 2nd through the 11th century CE in [[Serindia]] or [[Xinjiang]], the western region of China that forms part of [[Central Asia]]. It derives from the art of the [[Gandhara]] and clearly combines Indian traditions with Greek and Roman influences.

Buddhist missionaries travelling on the [[Silk Road]] introduced this art, along with [[Buddhism]] itself, into Serindia, where it mixed with Chinese and Persian influences.

{{See also|Silk Road transmission of Buddhism}}

==Influences in Eastern Asia==
The arts of China, Korea and Japan adopted Greco-Buddhist artistic influences, but tended to add many local elements as well. What remains most readily identifiable from Greco-Buddhist art are:

* The general idealistic realism of the figures reminiscent of Greek art.
* Clothing elements with elaborate Greek-style folds.
* The curly hairstyle characteristic of the Mediterranean.
* In some Buddhist representations, hovering winged figures holding a wreath.
* Greek sculptural elements such as vines and floral scrolls.

===China===
[[File:NorthernWeiMaitreya.JPG|thumb|left|170px|Northern Wei Buddha Maitreya, [[443|443 CE]].]]
Greco-Buddhist artistic elements can be traced in Chinese Buddhist art, with several local and temporal variations depending on the character of the various dynasties that adopted the Buddhist faith. Some of the earliest known Buddhist artifacts found in China are small statues on "money trees", dated circa 200 CE, in typical Gandharan style (drawing): "That the imported images accompanying the newly arrived doctrine came from Gandhara is strongly suggested by such early Gandhara characteristics on this "money tree" Buddha as the high ushnisha, vertical arrangement of the hair, moustache, symmetrically looped robe and parallel incisions for the folds of the arms." "Crossroads of Asia" p209

Some [[Northern Wei Dynasty|Northern Wei]] statues can be quite reminiscent of Gandharan standing Buddha, although in a slightly more symbolic style. The general attitude and rendering of the dress however remain. Other, like [[Northern Qi Dynasty]] statues also maintain the general Greco-Buddhist style, but with less realism and stronger symbolic elements.

Some [[Eastern Wei Dynasty|Eastern Wei]] statues display Buddhas with elaborate Greek-style robe foldings, and surmounted by flying figures holding a wreath.

===Japan===
[[File:AsukaSeatedBuddha.jpg|thumb|left|180px|The Buddha, [[Asuka period]], 7th century.]]
[[File:Kamakura Budda Daibutsu front 1885.jpg|thumb|180px|right|A Buddha in [[Kamakura, Kanagawa|Kamakura]] (1252), reminiscent of Greco-Buddhist influences.]]
In Japan, Buddhist art started to develop as the country converted to Buddhism in 548 CE. Some tiles from the [[Asuka period]], the first period following the conversion of the country to Buddhism, display a strikingly classical style, with ample Hellenistic dress and realistically rendered body shape characteristic of Greco-Buddhist art.

Other works of art incorporated a variety of Chinese and Korean influences, so that Japanese Buddhist became extremely varied in its expression. Many elements of Greco-Buddhist art remain to this day however, such as the [[Hercules]] inspiration behind the [[Nio]] guardian deities in front of Japanese Buddhist temples, or representations of the Buddha reminiscent of Greek art such as the Buddha in [[Kamakura, Kanagawa|Kamakura]].<ref>"Needless to say, the influence of Greek art on Japanese Buddhist art, via the Buddhist art of Gandhara and India, was already partly known in, for example, the comparison of the wavy drapery of the Buddha images, in what was, originally, a typical Greek style" (Katsumi Tanabe, "Alexander the Great, East-West cultural contacts from Greece to Japan", p19)</ref>

[[File:WindGods.JPG|thumb|401px|Iconographical evolution of the Wind God. 
Left: Greek wind god from [[Hadda, Afghanistan|Hadda]], 2nd century. 
Middle: wind god from [[Kizil Caves|Kizil]], [[Tarim Basin]], 7th century. 
Right: Japanese wind god [[Fūjin|Fujin]], 17th century.]]
Various other Greco-Buddhist artistic influences can be found in the Japanese Buddhist pantheon, the most striking of which being that of the Japanese wind god [[Fūjin|Fujin]]. In consistency with Greek iconography for the wind god [[Anemoi#Boreas|Boreas]], the Japanese wind god holds above his head with his two hands a draping or "wind bag" in the same general attitude.<ref>"The Japanese wind god images do not belong to a separate tradition apart from that of their Western counter-parts but share the same origins. (...) One of the characteristics of these Far Eastern wind god images is the wind bag held by this god with both hands, the origin of which can be traced back to the shawl or mantle worn by [[Anemoi#Boreas|Boreas]]/ Oado." (Katsumi Tanabe, "Alexander the Great, East-West cultural contacts from Greece to Japan", p21)</ref> The abundance of hair have been kept in the Japanese rendering, as well as exaggerated facial features.

[[File:Heracles-Shukongoshin.JPG|thumb|400px|Iconographical evolution from the Greek god [[Herakles]] to the Japanese god [[Shukongōshin]]. From left to right: 
1) [[Herakles]] (Louvre Museum). 
2) [[Herakles]] on coin of [[Greco-Bactrian]] king [[Demetrius I of Bactria|Demetrius I]]. 
3) [[Vajrapani]], the protector of the Buddha, depicted as Herakles in the Greco-Buddhist art of [[Gandhara]]. 
4) [[Shukongoshin|Shukongōshin]], manifestation of [[Vajrapani]], as protector deity of Buddhist temples in Japan.]]
Another Buddhist deity, named [[Shukongoshin]], one of the wrath-filled protector deities of Buddhist temples in Japan, is also an interesting case of transmission of the image of the famous Greek god [[Herakles]] to the Far-East along the [[Silk Road]]. [[Herakles]] was used in Greco-Buddhist art to represent [[Vajrapani]], the protector of the Buddha, and his representation was then used in China and Japan to depict the protector gods of Buddhist temples.<ref>"The origin of the image of Vajrapani should be explained. This deity is the protector and guide of the Buddha Sakyamuni. His image was modelled after that of Hercules. (...) The Gandharan Vajrapani was transformed in Central Asia and China and afterwards transmitted to Japan, where it exerted stylistic influences on the wrestler-like statues of the Guardian Deities ([[Nio]])." (Katsumi Tanabe, "Alexander the Great, East-West cultural contacts from Greece to Japan", p23)</ref>

[[File:NaraTempleTiles.JPG|thumb|250px|Temple tiles from [[Nara, Nara|Nara]], 7th century.]]
[[File:NaraVines&Grapes.JPG|thumb|170px|left|Vine and grape scrolls from Nara, 7th century.]]
Finally, the artistic inspiration from Greek floral scrolls is found quite literally in the decoration of Japanese roof tiles, one of the only remaining elements of wooden architecture to have survived the centuries. The clearest ones are from 7th century [[Nara, Nara|Nara]] temple building tiles, some of them exactly depicting vines and grapes. These motifs have evolved towards more symbolic representations, but essentially remain to this day in many Japanese traditional buildings.<ref>The transmission of the floral scroll pattern from West to East is presented in the regular exhibition of Ancient Japanese Art, at the [[Tokyo National Museum]].</ref>

==Influences on South-East Asian art==
[[File:CambodianBuddha.JPG|thumb|left|150px|A Cambodian Buddha, 14th century]]
[[File:Bodhisattva Lokesvara statue.jpg|thumb|180px|Bodhisattva [[Avalokitesvara|Lokesvara]], [[Cambodia]] 12th century.]]
The Indian civilization proved very influential on the cultures of [[South-East Asia]]. Most countries adopted Indian writing and culture, together with [[Hinduism]] and [[Mahayana]] and [[Theravada]] [[Buddhism]].

The influence of Greco-Buddhist art is still visible in most of the representation of the Buddha in South-East Asia, through their idealism, realism and details of dress, although they tend to intermix with Indian Hindu art, and they progressively acquire more local elements.

==Cultural significance==
Beyond stylistic elements which spread throughout Asia for close to a millennium, the main contribution of Greco-Buddhist art to the Buddhist faith may be in the Greek-inspired idealistic realism which helped describe in a visual and immediately understandable manner the state of personal bliss and enlightenment proposed by Buddhism. The communication of deeply human approach of the Buddhist faith, and its accessibility to all have probably benefited from the Greco-Buddhist artistic syncretism.

==Museums==
===Major collections===
* [[Peshawar Museum]], [[Peshawar]], [[Pakistan]] (largest collection in the world).
* [[Lahore Museum]], [[Lahore]], [[Pakistan]].
* [[Taxila Museum]], [[Taxila]], [[Pakistan]].
* [[National Museum of Pakistan]], [[Karachi]], [[Pakistan]].
* [[Indian Museum]], [[Kolkata, West Bengal]], [[India]].
* [[Mathura Museum]], [[Mathura, Uttar Pradesh|Mathura]], [[India]].
* [[Musée Guimet]], [[Paris]], [[France]] (about 150 artifacts, largest collection outside of Asia.)
* [[British Museum]], [[London]], [[Great Britain]] (about 100 artifacts), such as [[Seated Buddha from Gandhara]]
* [[Tokyo National Museum]], [[Tokyo]], [[Japan]] (about 50 artifacts)
* [[National Museum of Oriental Art]], [[Rome]], [[Italy]] (about 80 artifacts)
* [[Museum of Indian Art]], Dahlem, [[Berlin]], [[Germany]].

===Small collections===
* [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], [[New York]], [[USA]]
* [[Ancient Orient Museum]], Tokyo, Japan (About 20 artifacts)
* [[Victoria and Albert Museum]], London, Great Britain (About 30 artifacts)
* [[City Museum of Ancient Art]] in [[Palazzo Madama, Turin|Palazzo Madama]], [[Turin]], [[Italy]].
* [[Rubin Museum of Art]] in [[New York City, NY]], [[United States]].

===Private collections===
* [[Collection de Marteau]], [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]].

==See also==
*[[Buddhist art]]
*[[Greco-Buddhism]]
*[[History of Buddhism]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* "Religions of the Silk Road" by [[Richard Foltz]], 2nd edition (Palgrave Macmilla, 2010) ISBN 978-0-230-62125-1
* "The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity" by John Boardman (Princeton University Press, 1994) ISBN 0-691-03680-2
* "Old World Encounters. Cross-cultural contacts and exchanges in pre-modern times" by Jerry H.Bentley (Oxford University Press, 1993) ISBN 0-19-507639-7
* "Alexander the Great: East-West Cultural contacts from Greece to Japan" (NHK and Tokyo National Museum, 2003)
* "The Greeks in Bactria and India" W.W. Tarn, Cambridge University Press
* "Living Zen" by [[Robert Linssen]] (Grove Press New York, 1958) ISBN 0-8021-3136-0
* "Echoes of Alexander the Great: Silk route portraits from Gandhara" by Marian Wenzel, with a foreword by the Dalai Lama (Eklisa Anstalt, 2000) ISBN 1-58886-014-0
* "The Crossroads of Asia. Transformation in Image and symbol", 1992, ISBN 0-9518399-1-8
:"The Buddhist art of Gandhara", Sir John Marshall, 1960, ISBN 81-215-0967-X

==Further reading==
*{{cite book | title=[http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/33392/rec/2 ''Along the ancient silk routes: Central Asian art from the West Berlin State Museums''] | location=New York | publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art | year=1982 | isbn=9780870993008}}
*Ihsan Ali adn Muhammad Naeem Qazi, ''[http://www.archive.org/details/GandharanSculpturesInPeshawarMuseum Gandharan Sculptures in Peshawar Museum]'', Hazara University, Mansehra.
*[[Alfred Foucher]], 1865-1952; Ecole française d'Extrême-Orient, ''[http://www.archive.org/details/lartgrcobouddh02foucuoft L'art gréco-bouddhique du Gandhâra : étude sur les origines de l'influence classique dans l'art bouddhique de l'Inde et de l'Extrême-Orient (1905)]'', Paris : E. Leroux.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Greco-Buddhist Art}}
[[Category:Buddhist art and culture]]
[[Category:Greco-Buddhism|Art]]
[[Category:History of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Indian art]]
[[Category:Hellenistic art]]
[[Category:Pakistani art]]

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