Japanese family names are extremely varied: according to estimates, there are over 100,000 different surnames in use today in Japan. Common family names in [[Japan]] include ({{nowrap|{{nihongo2|佐藤}}}}) (most common), ({{nowrap|{{nihongo2|鈴木}}}}) (second most common), and [[Takahashi (disambiguation)|]] ({{nowrap|{{nihongo2|高橋}}}}) (third most common).ref This diversity is in stark contrast to the situation in other nations of the [[Chinese cultural sphere]], there being very few [[Chinese surname]]s (a few hundred common, 20 comprise half the population), and similarly [[Korean name]]s (250 names, of which 3 comprise almost half the population) and [[Vietnamese name]]s (about 100 family names, of which 3 comprise 60% of the population). This reflects different history: while Chinese surnames have been in use for millennia and were often reflective of an entire clan or adopted from nobles (with or without any genetic relationship) – and were thence transferred to Korea and Vietnam via noble names, modern Japanese family names date only to the 19th century, following the [[Meiji restoration]], and were chosen at will. The recent introduction of surnames has two additional effects: Japanese names became widespread when the country had a very large population (over 30,000,000 during the early Meiji era – see [[Demographics of Imperial Japan]]) instead of dating to ancient times (population estimated at 300,000 in 1 CE, for instance – see [[Demographics of Japan before Meiji Restoration]]), and since little time has passed, Japanese names have not experienced as significant [[surname extinction]] as has occurred in the much longer history in China.ref
Surnames occur with varying frequency in different regions; for example, the names Chinen ({{nowrap|{{nihongo2|知念}}}}), Higa ({{nowrap|{{nihongo2|比嘉}}}}), and Shimabukuro ({{nowrap|{{nihongo2|島袋}}}}) are common in [[Okinawa]] but not in other parts of Japan; this is mainly due to differences between the language and culture of [[Yamato people]] and Okinawans. Many Japanese family names derive from features of the rural landscape; for example, ({{nowrap|{{nihongo2|石川}}}}) means "stone river", ({{nowrap|{{nihongo2|山本}}}}) means "the base of the mountain", and [[Inoue]] ({{nowrap|{{nihongo2|井上}}}}) means "above the well".
While family names follow relatively consistent rules, given names are much more diverse in [[pronunciation]] and character usage. While many common names can easily be spelt or pronounced, many parents choose names with unusual characters or pronunciations, and such names cannot in general be spelt or pronounced unless both the spelling and pronunciation are given. Unusual pronunciations have especially become common, with this trend having increased significantly since the 1990s.refref For example, the popular boy's name 大翔 is traditionally pronounced "Hiroto", but in recent years alternative pronunciations "Haruto", "Yamato", "Daito", "Taiga", "Sora", "Taito", "Daito", and "Masato" have all entered use.ref
Male names often end in -rō ({{nihongo2|郎}} "son", but also {{nihongo2|朗}} "clear, bright"; e.g. "[[Ichirō]]") or -ta ({{nihongo2|太}} "great, thick"; e.g. "[[Kenta (disambiguation)|]]"), or contain ichi ({{nihongo2|一}} "first [son]"; e.g. "[[Ken'ichi]]"), kazu (also written with 一 "first [son]", along with several other possible characters; e.g. "[[Kazuhiro]]"), ji ({{nihongo2|二}} "second [son]" or {{nihongo2|次}} "next"; e.g. "[[Jiro (given name)|Jirō]]"), or dai ({{nihongo2|大}} "great, large"; e.g. "") while female names often end in -ko ({{nihongo2|子}} "child"; e.g. "[[Keiko (given name)|]]") or -mi ({{nihongo2|美}} "beauty"; e.g. "[[Yumi (name)|]]"). Other popular endings for female names include -ka ({{nihongo2|香}} "scent, perfume" or {{nihongo2|花}} "flower"; e.g. "[[Reika (disambiguation)|]]") and -na ({{nihongo2|奈}}, or {{nihongo2|菜}}, meaning greens; e.g. "[[Haruna (disambiguation)|]]").
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Names cannot begin with the syllable n ({{nihongo2|ん}}, {{nihongo2|ン}}); this is in common with other proper Japanese words, though colloquial words may begin with ん, as in んまい (nmai, variant of うまい, delicious). Some names end in n: the male names Ken, Shin, and Jun are examples. The syllable n should not be confused with the consonant "n," which names can begin with; for example, the female name Naoko ({{nowrap|{{nihongo2|尚子}}}}) or the male Naoya ({{nowrap|{{nihongo2|直哉}}}}). (The consonant "n" needs to be paired with a vowel to form a syllable.)
One large category of family names can be categorized as "-tō" names. The kanji {{nihongo2|藤}}, meaning [[wisteria]], has the on'yomi tō (or, with [[rendaku]], dō). Many Japanese people have surnames that include this kanji as the second character. This is because the [[Fujiwara clan]] ({{nowrap|{{nihongo2|藤原家}}}}) gave their [[samurai]] surnames (myōji) ending with the first character of their name, to denote their status in an era when commoners were not allowed surnames. Examples include , , [[Itō (name)|]] (although a different final kanji is also common), , [[Eto|Etō]], [[Endo (surname)|Endō]], [[Goto (name)|Gotō]], [[Jitō]], [[Kato (disambiguation)|Katō]], [[Kito|Kitō]], [[Kudo (disambiguation)|Kudō]], [[Kondo (disambiguation)|Kondō]], , , , [[Sudo|Sudō]], [[Naito (disambiguation)|Naitō]], [[Bito|Bitō]], and [[Muto (disambiguation)|Mutō]]. As already noted, some of the most common family names are in this list.
Japanese family names usually include characters referring to places and geographic features.ref
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A few Japanese names, particularly family names, include [[Kyuujitai|archaic versions of characters]]. For example the very common character shima, island, may be written as {{nihongo2|嶋}} or {{nihongo2|嶌}} instead of the usual {{nihongo2|島}}. Some names also feature very uncommon [[kanji]], or even [[jinmeiyō kanji|kanji which no longer exist in modern Japanese]]. Japanese people who have such names are likely to compromise by substituting similar or simplified characters.
An example of such a name is . There are two common kanji for sai here. The two sai characters have different meanings: {{nihongo2|斉}} means "together" or "parallel", but {{nihongo2|斎}} means "to purify". These names can also exist written in archaic forms, as 齊藤 and 齋藤 respectively.
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Most Japanese people and agencies have adopted customs to deal with these issues. [[Address book]]s, for instance, often contain [[furigana]] or [[ruby characters]] to clarify the pronunciation of the name. Japanese nationals are also required to give a [[romanized name]] for their [[passport]]. The recent use of Japanese media using katakana when referring to Japanese celebrities who have gained international fame has started a fad among young [[socialite]]s who attempt to invoke a cosmopolitan flair using katakana names as a badge of honor.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} All of these complications are also found in [[Japanese place name]]s.
Not all names are complicated. Some common names are summarized by the phrase tanakamura ("the village in the middle of the rice fields"): the three kanji: {{nihongo2|田}} (ta, rice field), {{nihongo2|中}} (naka, middle) and {{nihongo2|村}} (mura, village), together in any pair, form a simple, reasonably common surname: [[Tanaka (disambiguation)|]], [[Nakamura (surname)|]], , [[Nakata (disambiguation)|]] (Nakada), [[Muranaka]], [[Tamura (surname)|]].
Despite these difficulties, there are enough patterns and recurring names that most native Japanese will be able to read virtually all family names they encounter and the majority of personal names.
